Russia and Piloted Space Missions

References

Soyuz 19 ASTP Build Up & Flight

By Marcia S. Smith, Formerly with the, Science Policy Research Division of the Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service

1971-1975/1976-1980

Soviet Manned Space Programs: 1957-80

SOYUZ DEVELOPMENT AND FREE-FLYING MISSIONS

KOSMOS PRECURSOR MISSIONS AND DEVELOPMENT FLIGHTS FOR

SOYUZ

THE APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT

In 1972, the United States and Soviet Union agreed to conduct a joint manned mission in 1975 in which an American Apollo would dock with a Soviet Soyuz. A total of four Soviet flights were made in connection with ASTP: Two unmanned test flights (Kosmos 638 and 672), a manned test flight (Soyuz 16), and the mission itself (Soyuz 19). These flights are summarized in table 6.

KOSMOS 638 AND 672

Kosmos 638 was launched on April 3, 1974 into a 325x195 km orbit inclined at 51.8 degrees, the same orbit intended for ASTP. The spacecraft stayed up for 10 days and was then recovered. The Kettering Group found signals at 20.008 MHz.

Kosmos 672 was launched on August 12, 1974 into a 239x198 km orbit, inclined at 51.8 degrees. The orbit was adjusted to the ASTP position when the apogee was moved to 238 km and perigee to 227km. Later, as with Kosmos 638, the Soviets confirmed that it was an ASTP test flight.

SOYUZ 16

Soyus 16 (Buran or Snowstorm), announced as a precursor flight for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, was launched December 2, 1974, at 0940 GMT and piloted by the prime ASTP backup crew, Col. Anatoly Filipchenko and Nikolay Rukavishnikov. It was a test of the new systems installed for the joint mission and most importantly, the docking procedure.' Some biological and photographic experiments were aboard, including some to be repeated on ASTP.

Modifications to the Soyuz included the docking gear, flight and attitude controls, radio communication systems, the addition of new controls and consoles in the orbital module, addition of an automatic gas analyzer, and changes in the life support system to enable it to handle four people (two cosmonauts and two astronauts). Tests were made of the changes in pressure and air composition that would be used during ASTP. The Russians operate in space under normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) and a nitrogen-oxygen air content. The United States, however, worked in a pure oxygen atmosphere at low pressure (260 mm Hg). In order to minimize the amount of time required for adjusting in the docking module airlock, the Soviet engineers agreed to reduce their pressure to 520 mm Hg and increase the percentage of oxygen to about 40 percent. These alterations were practiced during Soyuz 16 and the cosmonauts suffered no ill effects.

NASA was told in advance that this would be an ASTP test, but did not know the exact date and time of launch, since the Russians insisted such information be secret and NASA refused to keep the news from the press. Once the launch was announced, joint tracking exercises were conducted at the following locations: Bermuda and Tananarive (NASA operated); Antigua, Grand Turk, Eastern Test Range, Canton Island, Kaena Point ( Hawaii), Kwajalein and Ascension (DOD operated). Mission control in Houston did not operate for this exercise.

The Russians have never announced the initial orbit for Soyuz 16, but NORAD stated it was 352x254 km. On the fifth revolution this was altered to 223x177 km, with an inclination of 51.8 degrees and a period of 88.4 minutes. As an ASTP test, the craft had to achieve a 225 km circular orbit, and this was accomplished by two more burns: To 240x190 km at an unspecified time, and on the 17th and 18th orbits to the final 225x225 km, with a period of 88.9 minutes. Although the Russians stated that these corrections were part of the planned program in order to test fully Soyuz's systems, some speculate that the initial orbit may have been a trajectory error. Others argue, however, that the "error" was deliberate, and the Soviets meant to demonstrate to the Americans that if the ASTP spacecraft was inadvertently placed in an incorrect orbit, they would be able to correct it.

Docking exercises were of primary importance for Soyuz 16. A special practice imitating ring attached to the ship was moved away so Soyuz could maneuver and dock with it (the ring was pulled onto Soyuz with a force equal to that of Apollo). The docking

equipment incorporated some of the Soyuz/Salyut gear, for example a spring-mechanical type of shock absorber as opposed to the hydraulic type used by the United States. Some 20 technical operations were carried out to test coupling, link-up and hermetic docking, beginning in the 32d orbit. The tests were successful.

Filipchenko and Rukavishnikov landed 300 km north of Dzhezkazgan at 0804 GMT on December 8 after 6 days in orbit. Other experiments carried out during the mission included:

Earth resources

Photographs of the Earth were taken for the study of natural resources, and of the horizon to determine the composition and limits of the atmosphere.

Astrophysical

Photography of the Sun and stars was carried out in preparation for an ASTP experiment which used Apollo to block out the Sun and create an artificial solar eclipse for Soyuz. Biological

There were five biological experiments.

(1) The growth of microorganisms in space. Microbes were put in a nutrient medium the first day in space and the cosmonauts watched for their growth. There was a lag for the first few days, but the microbes soon became adjusted to the environment and grew normally.

(2) A determination of what direction sprouts would grow in without the Sun's rays.

(3) The study of fish. In previous experiments, scientists discovered that adult fish lost their sense of spatial orientation in a gravity-free environment. On this mission, Danio rerio fish eggs were brought along. When the fish hatched, they exhibited no orientation problems as the earlier fish had.

(4) Samples of microbes were taken from different parts of the Soyuz craft and from the cosmonauts themselves (hair and skin) to test microbial transfer. This was repeated on the ASTP mission to determine if any contamination occurs when one space crew is visited by another, as might happen in long-duration space stations.

(5) Zone-forming fungi were studied for two reasons. First, these fungi develop a new growth ring every 24 hours on Earth and scientists wanted to see how often one would grow in space where a "day" is only 90 minutes long. In addition, the fungi were placed inside a device called "Ritm" which had a dosimeter mounted on the outside to measure the amount of radiation entering the flask to see if it had any effect on the fungi. During ASTP, fungi were flown on both ships to see how different amounts of radiation in various areas of space would affect the organisms, since Apollo and Soyuz travelled in different parts of the sky except for the time they were docked together.

SOYUZ 19 (ASTP)

Soyuz 19, the Soviet half of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, was launched on July 15, 1975 at 1220 GMT carrying Col. Aleksey Leonov and Valeriy Kubasov (see figs. 21-24). The Soviets had provided a complete backup Soyuz launch vehicle and capsule ready on the pad in case there was an abort with the primary launch, and backup crews for both the prime crew (Leonov and Kubasov) and the prime backup crew were named. The launch occurred nominally, placing the spacecraft in a 229x188 km orbit. On the 4th and 17th. orbits, the crew raised the ship so it would be in a circular 225 km orbit.

At 1950 GMT, the U.S. Apollo spacecraft was launched with its crew of Gen. Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald (Deke) Slayton. (The United States had named a single backup crew.) The Apollo was placed in an initial orbit 173 X 155 km. Approximately 1 hour after attaining orbit, the American crew began transposition and docking with the docking module which had been specially designed for joining the two dissimilar ships. The Apollo orbit was then circularized to 172 km. Another burn was made to change the oribit to 234x173 km on July 16, and the next day it was circularized at 229 km.

Rendezvous and docking of the two ships was accomplished at 1612 GMT on July 17 (Apollo was the active ship), and the ships remained docked for 2 days, conducting joint experiments and exchanging national mementos. At 1623 GMT, Soviet Premier Brezhnev relayed congratulatory messages to both crews, and the first handshake between Stafford and Leonov took place at 1919 GMT when the ships were approximately over Metz, France (5° 47' 37" E, 49° 10' 12" N).10 President Ford spoke with the Apollo and Soyuz crews, offering his congratulations. Several crew exchanges were made, national flags were exchanged, and international certificates were signed.

After the 2 days of docked flight, the ships completed an undocking and re-docking maneuver, separating for the last time at 1526 GMT on July 19. Soyuz 19 landed near Arkalyk at 1051 GMT on July 21. The Apollo remained in orbit to conduct additional experiments, splashing down in the Pacific at 2118 GMT on July 24.

ASTP preparation

Prior to the conduct of ASTP, the astronauts and cosmonauts and support personnel visited each other's space centers to become familiar with the spacecraft of the other country. The first visit was by the Soviet crew to NASA's Johnson Space Center in July 1973, followed by a U.S. crew visit to Moscow in November 1973. In late April and early May 1974, the Soviet flight crews returned to Johnson Space Center, and the U.S. crews went to Moscow in June and July 1974. The Soviet crew made a third trip to the United States in September 1973 and came for the fourth and last time in February 1975. The U.S. crews visited the Soviet Union in late April and early May 1975 and became the first Americans to see the launch facilities at Tyuratam on April 28, 1975.

Three simulation sessions were conducted between flight controllers and the ASTP crew in Houston and Moscow on May 13, 15, and 18, 1975, involving communications links between the two control centers and fully manned control center facilities. A final simulation was conducted from June 30 to July 1, 1975.

One of the most difficult problems to overcome was that of language. To alleviate this as much as possible, the Americans learned Russian and the Soviets learned English. It was found that the best scenario was for the Soviet to speak English and the Americans to speak Russian.

Objectives and experiments

According to NASA, the main objective of ASTP was "to develop a compatible docking system and rendezvous and crew transfer procedures that might be appropriate for future international manned missions." (11) Since it was well known by this time that this would be the last flight for Apollo, and that the utility of the docking system would end after this flight, it seemed a less than convincing argument.

An additional objective, according to NASA, was scientific investigations, and a number of experiments were carried out by both crews separately and jointly. A discussion of the U.S. experiments can be found in United States Civilian Space Programs. (12) In the following paragraphs, experiments designated "S" were conducted by the Soviet Union, and those tabled "J" were conducted jointly.

(1) Photography of the solar corona and zodiacal light against the background of the night sky (S}

A number of shots of the night and dusk sky and the Sun at different angles behind the Earth's horizon (conditions of solar eclipse by the Earth) were taken in an attempt to find coronal rays at large angular distances from the Sun.

(2) Investigation of refraction and transparency of the upper layers of the atmosphere (S)

Atmospheric refraction was determined from solar disc image flattening in photographs taken of the Sun as it rose and set behind the Earth's horizon. Photographs were also taken of setting stars.

(3) Photography of daytime and dusk horizon (S)

Visual observation and photography of light effects in the vicinity of the spacecraft were carried out in an attempt to determine the characteristics of light-scattering by atmospheric air, investigate various layers of aerosol, investigate certain types of clouds, and analyze the dependence of altitude aerosol distribution on geographical and meteorological factors.

(4) Microorganisms' growth (S)

To study the effects of weightlessness and space radiation and the Earth's magnetic field on the growth of microorganisms, a culture of proteus vulgaris was placed in a thermostatically controlled capsule known as a "Biokat" and observed.

Objectives and experiments

(1) Photography of the solar corona and zodiacal light against the background of the night sky (S}

(2) Investigation of refraction and transparency of the upper layers of the atmosphere (S)

Atmospheric refraction was determined from solar disc image flattening in photographs taken of the Sun as it rose and set behind the Earth's horizon. Photographs were also taken of setting stars.

(3) Photography of daytime and dusk horizon (S)

(4) Microorganisms' growth (S)

(5) Fish embryonic development (S)

To study the growth and development of amphibians under space conditions, aquarium fish as well as their fertilized eggs were inserted into "Biokat" aquaria for observation.

(6) Genetic experiments (S)

In order to study the effects of weightlessness on cell division and mutation in biological organisms, various types of seeds were placed in one of the "Biokats" and observed.

(7) Artificial solar eclipse (J)

A series of on-board photographs taken from the Soyuz of the solar corona "atmosphere" around the Apollo while it eclipsed the Sun provided a record of the first solar eclipse produced by man. This experiment was of particular interest to scientists because of the relative infrequency of naturally occurring solar eclipses.

(8) Ultraviolet absorption (J)

To measure the concentrations of atomic oxygen and nitrogen in space at the altitude of the mission, different types of mass-spectrometers were used on board. The method of resonance absorption within the ultraviolet spectrum was employed to determine the densities of these components of the outer atmosphere.

(9) Zone-forming fungi (J)

In order to study the effects of space flight factors on biological rhythms, two cultures of the Pushchino strain of Actinomyces levories (fungi) were observed. Each had been cultivated in different time zones ( United States and Soviet Union) approximately 9 hours apart, 7 days prior to launch.

(10) Microbial exchange test (J)

Microbial samples were taken from cosmonauts and astronauts before, during, and after the flight to determine the character and conditions of microbial exchange among men confined in a sealed compartment.

(11) Furnace system experiments (J)

This series of joint "multipurpose furnace experiments" was conducted in order to determine the effects of weightlessness on some metallurgical and chemicrystallization processes in metals and semiconductors.

Political issues

Beyond its merits as a scientific and technical project, ASTP was a highly political and somewhat controversial mission, acclaimed by some as a major contribution to U.S.-U.S.S.R. detente, while assailed by others as an expensive waste of time. Politics affected both sides, both jointly and separately, at various stages of the project development. In question were such issues as the value of the mission in relation to detente, the Soviet safety record and its effect on U.S. confidence, and the feasibility of future U.S.-U.S.S.R. cooperative space endeavors.

(1) Contributions to détente

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project's political achievement in strengthening the atmosphere of detente between the United States and the Soviet Union may be judged by historians as the most significant aspect of the mission. Certainly the demonstration of meaningful cooperation between these two historically competitive powers was a positive step in this direction. Both sides demonstrated that they had considerably changed their attitudes since the early days of the so-called "space race."

(2) U.S. doubts—Senator Proxmire and the CIA

In light of several Soviet Soyuz mission failures, doubts about Soyuz hardware safety and reliability were raised by some U.S. critics prior to the mission. In particular, the Soviet "April 5 th Anomaly" (discussed in section E) prompted Senator William Proxmire to call for a briefing by Central Intelligence Agency officials on Soviet space program capabilities. A closed hearing before the HUD and Independent Agencies Subcommittee of the U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee was held June 4, 1975. A summary of the classified testimony of Carl Duckett, CIA deputy director for science and technology, reported that "I do not think they (the U.S.S.R.) are in good shape to handle two missions at once from the command point of view." (13)

Based upon this testimony, Senator Proxmire released a statement July 2, 1975, urging NASA to postpone the July 15 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission "until the Soviet Union brings back to Earth the Russian (Soyuz 18/Salyut 4) cosmonauts already in space." (14)

NASA responded to this statement July 2, 1975, concluding that "the Soyuz 18/Salyut 4 mission does not constitute a hazards to ASTP." 15 NASA also noted that their calculations indicated a tracking overlap of the two missions would occur in only two instances, one lasting about 30 seconds, the other about 90 seconds.

ASTP was not postponed, and the joint mission went smoothly and according to plan.

Summary

In summary, it may be said that the successful completion of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission was a step toward the realization of the goals set forth in the May 24, 1972, agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union on cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. The technological cooperation between engineers and scientists and crew members afforded an opportunity for individuals really to work together on a personal level. The preparations for the joint mission were perhaps as important as the flight itself from the standpoint of developing attitudes. History will be the ultimate judge of its success or failure, but it would appear that the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project made a significant contribution to the strengthening of detente, and laid the foundation for possible future joint efforts between the United States and the Soviet Union.

References:

A. SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1976-80, (WITH SUPPLEMENTARY DATA THROUGH 1983) MANNED SPACE PROGRAMS AND SPACE LIFE SCIENCES PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF HON. BOB PACKWOOD, Chairman, COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION UNITED STATES SENATE, Part 2, OCTOBER 1984, Printed for the use of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C., 1984

10 Press reports at the time stated that the handshake had taken place over Amsterdam, Netherlands, but analysis by the Kettering Group has shown that Amsterdam was not on the ground track of the spacecraft when the handshake occurred, and that in fact the ASTP crews were over the Strasbourg area when they shook hands.

11. NASA. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: Preliminary Science Report. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. p. xi.

12. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. United States Civilian Space Programs 1958-1978: Volume I. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981. See Chapters Six, Ten, and Eleven.

13. Summary Report of CIA testimony. Remarks of Senator Proxmire, Congressional Record, v.121, July 14, 1975, " CIA Report on Apollo-Soyuz Mission."

14. Press release from the Office of U.S. Senator William Proxmire, July 2, 1975.

15. NASA Statement to Aerospace Daily, v. 74, No. 3, July 3, 1975, p. 18.